What Is the Tendency of an Atom to Attract a Pair of Electrons That Will Bond

Structure of Organic Compounds

Robert J. Ouellette , J. David Rawn , in Principles of Organic Chemical science, 2015

Electronegativity

Electronegativity is a measure of the allure of an atom for bonding electrons in molecules compared to that of other atoms. The electronegativity values devised by Linus Pauling, an American pharmacist, are dimensionless quantities that range from slightly less than 1 for the alkali metals to a maximum of four for fluorine. Big electronegativity values indicate a stronger attraction for electrons than small electronegativity values.

Electronegativities increase from left to right across the periodic table (Figure 1.three). Elements on the left of the periodic tabular array accept low electronegativities and are oftentimes called electropositive elements. The order of electronegativities F   >   O   >   N   >   C is an important property that we will use to explicate the chemical properties of organic compounds. Electronegativities subtract from top to bottom within a group of elements. The social club of decreasing electronegativities F   >   Cl   >   Br   >   I is another sequence that nosotros will use to interpret the chemical and physical properties of organic compounds.

Effigy 1.iii. Electronegativity

Read full chapter

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012802444700001X

Characterization of Chemic Reactions

V.P. Gupta , in Principles and Applications of Quantum Chemistry, 2016

12.14 Electronegativity and Group Electronegativity

12.xiv.one Electronegativity

Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the trend of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons toward itself. The electronegativity of an atom is afflicted by both its atomic number and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nuclei. The concept of electronegativity was offset proposed by Pauli in 1932 as an explanation of the fact that the covalent bond betwixt two different atoms (A–B) is stronger than would be expected by taking the average of the strengths of the A–A and B B bonds. This additional stabilization of the heteronuclear bond has been explained past the valence bond theory due to the contribution of the ionic approved forms to the bonding. Electronegativity is a relative term and only the differences in the electronegativity are defined. Thus, Pauli proposed

(12.14.1) ${\chi }_A–{\chi }_B={\left[D\left(AB\right)-\frac{D\left(AA\right)+D\left(BB\right)}{2}\right]}^{\mathrm{one}/2}{\left(\text{eV}\right)}^{-\mathrm{ane}/2},$

where ${\chi }_A$ and ${\chi }_B$ are electronegativities of atoms A and B and D(AB), D(AA), and D(BB) are the dissociation energies of bonds A B, A A, and B B, respectively, expressed in units of electron volts (eV). The inclusion of ${\left(\text{eV}\right)}^{-1/2}$ expresses ${\chi }_A–{\chi }_B$ as a dimensionless quantity. In lodge to construct an electronegativity scale, Pauli chose hydrogen as reference as it forms covalent bonds with a large multifariousness of elements and stock-still its electronegativity at 2.one, which was afterward revised to 2.20. The diminutive electronegativity scale so constructed is known equally Pauli's electronegativity scale. Electronegativity was originally defined as an invariant property of atoms. Recently several workers have suggested that electronegativity of an atom depends upon its environment in the molecule. Thus, it depends on hybridization and oxidation land of the element.

Mulliken [38] introduced the concept of absolute electronegativity and proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy (I) and the electron affinity (A) of an element should be the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

(12.14.2) $\chi =\frac{(I+A)}{2}$

This expression based on the definitions of I and A, follows from simple considerations. Thus, if X and Y are 2 systems of interest, then the status that they have equal electronegativity is that the free energy changes for the reactions

$X+Y\to {\mathrm{Ten}}^{+}+Y^{-}$

and

$X+Y\to X^{-}+Y^{+}$

are equal.

(12.xiv.3) $\text{or,}\left[\mathrm{East}\left({\mathrm{Ten}}^{+}\right)-\mathrm{East}\left(X\right)\right]+\left[\mathrm{Due\; east}\left(Y^{-}\right)-E\left(Y\right)\right]=\left[\mathrm{Eastward}\left({\mathrm{10}}^{-}\right)-E\left(\mathrm{10}\right)\right]+\left[\mathrm{East}\left(Y^{+}\right)-E\left(Y\right)\right]$

By definition, E(Ten ⁺)   − E(10)   = I(X) is the ionization energy of X and East(X)   − East(X ⁻)   = A(Ten) is its electron analogousness.

Hence from equation (12.14.3), I(X)   – A(Y)   = I(Y)   – A(X)

(12.14.four) $\text{or},\left[I\left(X\right)+A\left(X\right)\right]\text{for system}X=\left[I\left(Y\right)+A\left(Y\right)\right]\text{for system}Y$

Information technology, therefore, makes sense to define electronegativity every bit (I  + A). The factor 1/ii in Eq. (12.14.2) was introduced past Mulliken equally he considered that χ as an arithmetic mean of I and A is an easily grasped concept.

12.xiv.2 Group Electronegativity

Most of the attempts to develop electronegativity scale considered electronegativity as an atomic holding although from Pauli's original definition, electronegativity is the power or trend of a group of atoms in a molecule to attract electrons to themselves. In organic chemical science, electronegativity is associated more than with different functional groups rather than with individual atoms. The electronegativity associated with functional groups is therefore chosen group electronegativity or substituent electronegativity. Despite computational advances and availability of large number of experimental data [39,forty], not many theoretical studies take been reported for group electronegativity. Relatively few methods take been proposed for the evaluation of group electronegativity and well-nigh of them accept been used to evaluate only pocket-sized subsets of the chemically interesting groups of atoms. It is common to distinguish between the inductive effect and the resonance upshot which are described every bit σ- and π-electronegativities, respectively. The quantization of the induction and resonance furnishings is most often done by using Hammett'south equations. Gupta et al. [12] studied isodesmic substituent stabilization energies in disubstituted ketenes relative to alkenes and correlated them with group electronegativities. They also analyzed the role of consecration upshot (F) and resonance event (R) parameters of the substituent groups on charge distribution. A similar study has been reported by McAllister and Tidwell [41]. Boyd and Boyd [42,43] introduced the bond critical point model for the conclusion of group electronegativities and reported values for over 100 groups from ab initio calculations.

The electronegativity of a group A was calculated from the backdrop associated with the A H bond critical point in AH. For example, the electronegativity χ of the methoxy group CH₃O– was obtained by determining the position of the OH bond critical point in CH_threeOH and substituting the appropriate values in the following equations:

(12.14.5a) $F_A=r_H/\left[N_A\rho \left(r_c\right)r_{AH}\right]$

(12.14.5b) ${\mathrm{\chi }}_{\mathrm{A}}=1.938F_A^{-0.2502},$

where F _A is the electronegativity factor of the atom A, r _H is the distance from the bail critical point to hydrogen nucleus, N _A is the number of valence electrons of cantlet A (atom O in case of CH₃OH), ρ(r _c ) is the density at the bond critical point, and r _AH is the internuclear altitude. The bond disquisitional point and the electron density at this point are determined past using the quantum theory of atoms-in-molecules. The grouping electronegativities of some of the important functional groups determined by Boyd and Boyd [43] using Eq. (12.14.5b) at the HF/vi-31G∗//HF/6-31G∗ level are given in Table 12.iv. In this table, the values in the parenthesis separated by a comma were obtained using HF/6-31G∗//experimental geometries and extended basis ready//experimental geometry.

Table 12.iv. Group electronegativities of some important functional groups

Group	x	Group	ten
CH3	2.55(2.55,2.56)	CCl2F	2.71(ii.67, –)
CH2CH3	2.55(2.55,ii.56)	CClthree	ii.seventy(2.66, –)
CH2CH2CH3	2.55(2.55, –)	NH2	3.12(iii.10,iii.ten)
CH2CH(CHthree)2	two.54(2.53, –)	NHCH3	3.13(three.11, –)
CH2CN	2.58(2.56, –)	NHCOH	3.xviii(3.17, –)
CH2COH	two.58(two.56, –)	N(CH3)ii	three.13(iii.08, –)
CH2COO−	2.52(–, –)	Due northCO	3.18(3.20,3.22)
CHiiCOOH	2.58(–, –)	NorthC	3.26(3.26,iii.30)
CH2COF	2.59(2.58, –)	NHNH2	3.13(three.12, –)
CH2CSH	2.58(two.57, –)	NNN	3.15(3.23, –)
CH2COCl	2.59(2.57, –)	NO	three.12(3.05,three.06)
CH(CH3)two	2.55(2.54, –)	NHF	3.19(–, –)
CH(CH2)2	2.57(two.56, –)	NFii	iii.25(–, –)
CHCH2	2.58(ii.57,2.61)	O-	iii.36(–, –)
CHCCHtwo	2.58(two.57, –)	OH	three.55(iii.52,3.64)
CHCCO	2.61(–, –)	OH2 +	3.57(–, –)
CHCO	2.58(ii.57, –)	OCH3	3.53(three.51,3.lxx)
C(CHiii)three	2.55(2.53, –)	OCN	3.57(–, 3.73)
C6H5	2.58(2.58, –)	OCOH	3.56(three.50,3.65)
CCH	2.66(2.65,2.66)	OCOCH3	3.57(–, –)
CCF	2.66(2.66, –)	ONHii	3.58(3.54, –)
CCCl	2.66(two.66, –)	ONO	3.55(3.49, –)
CHtwoNH2	2.55(2.54, –)	OO.	iii.58(3.51, –)
CH2NHCH3	2.57(2.57, –)	Of	iii.60(3.56, –)
CH2NO2	2.62(2.61, –)	OPHii O	iii.54(–, –)
CHNH	two.59(ii.56, –)	MgH	1.30(1.31,1.33)
CHNN	2.60(2.60, –)	AlH2	1.60(ane.61,1.62)
CN	two.69(2.68,2.69)	SiH	1.87(1.87, –)
CNO	two.69(2.73, –)	SiH3	1.ninety(1.89,ane.91)
CHtwoOH	2.59(2.58,two.59)	SiF	1.88(–, –)
CH2OOCH3	2.61(2.60, –)	SiF2H	1.93(–, –)
COH	ii.60(2.58,2.60)	SiCl	1.89(1.85, –)
COCHthree	2.59(ii.59, –)	SiClH2	one.91(1.90, –)
CONHtwo	2.61(2.60, –)	SiCl2H	1.93(one.92, –)
$-C{O}_2^{-}$	ii.49(–, –)	SiCl3	ane.95(1.94, –)
COOH	2.63(2.62,2.66)	PH2	ii.17(ii.16,2.17)
COOCH3	two.64(2.62, –)	PHii O	2.21(–, –)
CO	two.57(2.54,two.57)	PH(OH)O	ii.22(–, –)
COF	ii.67(2.65, –)	P(OH)2 O	2.25(–, –)
COCl	2.66(2.64, –)	S-	two.52(–, –)
CFHtwo	ii.60(two.61,ii.61)	SH	2.65(2.66,2.63)
CFtwoH	2.65(2.64, –)	SCH3	2.65(2.65, –)
CF3	two.71(ii.68, –)	SCN	2.70(–, –)
CClH2	2.61(2.60, –)	SSH	2.68(2.67, –)
CClFH	2.66(ii.63, –)

Adapted with permission from [43]. Copyright @ 1988, American Chemical Society.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128034781000121

Structure and Bonding in Organic Compounds

Robert J. Ouellette , J. David Rawn , in Organic Chemistry (2nd Edition), 2018

Electronegativity

Electronegativity is an alphabetize of the trend of an atom to attract electrons. It is proportional to the difference between an atom'southward ionization potential and its electron analogousness. Linus Pauling placed electronegativity values on a scale of slightly less than 1.0 for alkali metals to a maximum of 4.0 for fluorine ( Figure 1.3). The alkali metals and alkaline metal earth metals tend to lose an electron to gain an inert gas configuration. Thus, groups I and 2 contain the least electronegative atoms. In fact they are electropositive. On the other terminate of the scale, halogens, in group Vii, tend to gain an electron to give an inert gas configuration. Thus, we find that electronegativity increases from left to right across the periodic table. Electronegativity values increase in menstruation 2 in the order C < N < O < F. Electronegativity values decrease from superlative to bottom within a group of elements. We volition frequently apply these periodic trends to interpret the chemical and physical properties of organic compounds.

Figure ane.3. Electronegativity

Problem 1.1

A few proteins contain selenocysteine, which contains a selenium atom in place of the sulfur atom of the amino acid cysteine. Selenium is in the quaternary period, merely below sulfur. Is sulfur or selenium more electronegative?

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9780128128381500013

Basic Coordination Chemistry for Biologists

Robert R. Crichton , in Biological Inorganic Chemistry (Second Edition), 2012

Ionic Bonding

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a molecule. Large differences in electronegativity between atoms in a given molecule often cause the complete transfer of an electron from the unfilled outer shell of one cantlet to the unfilled beat of some other. The resulting charged species (ions) are held together by electrostatic forces. Such bonds are highly polarised and are referred to as ionic bonds. Ionic bonding is the simplest type of chemical bonding encountered. NaCl, tin be written equally [Na⁺ Cl⁻], the sodium atom giving up 1 electron to resemble the stable neon atom, while the chlorine cantlet acquires an extra electron to resemble the stable argon atom. MgCl_ii [Mg²⁺ ${\text{Cl}}_{\text{2}}^{-}$ ] and CoBr₃ [Co³⁺ ${\text{Br}}_{\text{three}}^{-}$ ] are other examples of ionic compounds.

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9780444537829000024

PERIODIC PERSPECTIVE: THE REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Therald Moeller , ... Clyde Metz , in Chemistry: With Inorganic Qualitative Assay, 1980

x.viii Electronegativity and oxidation country

Electronegativity values are helpful in determining oxidation numbers in cases where it might otherwise be difficult to decide which cantlet has the positive and which the negative oxidation number. In binary covalent compounds and polyatomic ions such as PO_iv ^three- or ClO₄ ⁻, the more than electronegative atom is arbitrarily assigned the negative oxidation number respective to the charge it would have if it were nowadays every bit an ion. This leaves assignment of a positive oxidation number to the less electronegative element. Every bit a result, oxidation numbers represent the relative electronegativities of atoms and the direction of the polarity of a bond. For example, in iodine trichloride, ICl₃, chlorine is assigned the -one oxidation number because it is the more electronegative of the two atoms. To reach the necessary neutrality, iodine is assigned an oxidation number of + 3 in this compound.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780125033503500159

Conceptual Density Functional Theory of Chemic Reactivity

Pratim K. Chattaraj , Debesh R. Roy , in Advances in Mathematical Chemistry and Applications, 2015

Electronegativity Equalization Principle (EEP)

The difference in electronegativity plays a major role in chemical reactions. Electrons are transferred from a species of lower electronegativity to a species of higher electronegativity until both possess equal electronegativity values.

Sanderson postulated that [31], during molecule formation the electronegativities of the constituent atoms become equal, yielding a molecular electronegativity (χ_K) which is roughly the geometric mean of the electronegativities of the isolated atoms,

(50) ${\chi }_M={\left({\chi }_A^0{\chi }_B^0{\chi }_C^0\dots \right)}^{1/\left(a+b+c+\dots \right)}$

where a, b, c are the numbers of atom of a given chemical element (A, B, C, etc.).

As an application of the electronegativity equalization principle (EEP), Parr and Pearson [18] derived Eqs. (26) and (27) to measure out the amount of charge transfer ΔN and the free energy change ΔE associated with the formation of A:B complex from acrid A and base:B.

These expressions are very useful in agreement the acid-base of operations reaction mechanism. It is of import to notation that the electronegativity divergence drives the electron transfer whereas the hardness sum provides a resistance to it. Therefore both χ and η are to be considered in analyzing these processes.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781681081984500096

In Silico Drug Discovery Tools

D. Bajusz , ... One thousand. Héberger , in Comprehensive Medicinal Chemical science III, 2017

3.14.four.two.9.4 MEDV (MEDV-13) descriptors

The Molecular Electronegativity Distance Vector (MEDV) is a vectorial descriptor, which includes 91 terms that incorporate information about the relative electronegativities. ²⁵² The electronegativities are represented past the modified East-country indices and topological distances between each possible pair of 13 cantlet types. In the first pace of the MEDV descriptor calculation, one has to assign each atom in the molecule to one of the aforementioned atom types. The atom types are based on the most ofttimes occurring atoms in organic molecules and also the number of bonded nonhydrogen atoms (vertex degree). ²³⁰ The single molecular descriptor can be calculated with this equation:

(25) $h\left(u,v\right)={\displaystyle \sum _{i\in u}}{\displaystyle \sum _{j\in 5}}\frac{{\mathrm{South}}_i^{*}·S_j^{*}}{d_{ij}^2},u,\mathrm{five}=1,2,\dots ,13\text{,}$

where u and v are the atom types, S* represents the modified Due east-state index, d_ij is the topological distance between v_i and v_j vertices.

There is also an extension of MEDV-13, called Molecular Holographic Altitude Vector (MHDV). ²⁵³ It is adult to describe more specific molecular structures like peptide sequences, which contain heteroatoms and multiple bonds.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B9780124095472123455

Volume 7

E. Negishi , in Comprehensive Organometallic Chemistry, 1982

45.6.2.1 Electronegativity and Size

The electronegativity of boron has been estimated at two.0, ¹⁵ which is relatively close to the corresponding value of 2.five for carbon ¹⁵ and is higher than those of the brine and alkaline earth metals, e.g. lithium, equally well as those of essentially all transition metals. Using an empirical equation correlating bond ionicity and deviation in electronegativity proposed past Pauling, ^15a the boron–carbon bail may be estimated to be about 90% covalent and simply 10% ionic.

The boron–carbon bond length in trimethylborane ¹⁶ is i.56   Å, which should be compared with the carbon–carbon bond length of 1.54   Å for ethane ¹⁷ and the aluminum–carbon bond lengths of 1.97   Å (terminal) and two.xiv   Å (bridging) for dimeric trimethylalane. ^xviii

The depression ionicity and the relatively brusk bond length combine to contribute to the fact that the bonding electrons of the boron–carbon bond of organoboranes tend to be highly inaccessible to external electrophilic reagents. In other words, organoboranes, unlike organolithium and Grignard reagents, are of low nucleophilicity.

Read total chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B9780080465180000969

Figurer-Assisted Drug Pattern

L.H. Hall , ... 50.M. Hall , in Comprehensive Medicinal Chemistry Two, 2007

four.22.two.2 Valence State Electronegativity

Valence country electronegativity (VSE) is defined every bit the ability of an atom, in its valence country, to concenter electron density to itself from neighboring atoms through the sigma bonding network of the molecule. An experimental measure of VSE has been developed past Hans Jaffeé and co-workers, ¹⁸ based on the Mulliken definition of electronegativity. ¹⁹ In the Mulliken definition, electronegativity is based on the average of the ionization potential (I _p) and electron affinity (E _A) for an atom. Hinze and Jaffeé extended the Mulliken definition to valence states by using I _p and Due east _A data taken from electronic spectroscopic data for atomic orbitals; they developed numerical values for valence states. This approach permits the evaluation of X _MJ values for various hybrid valence states.

The Mulliken–Jaffeé valence state electronegativity values (X _MJ) narrate an atom in its several valence states dissimilar the less sensitive Pauling values which are the aforementioned for all valence states. For example, the Pauling value for carbon is the same for carbons atoms in ethane, ethylene, and acetylene. ^twenty However, the Ten _MJ values are different for these three hydrocarbons, corresponding to the increasing acidity of the hydrogen atoms in these 3 molecules. The larger valence state electronegativity for the acetylenic carbon correlates with the greater acidity of the hydrogen atom in acetylene and the greater polarity of the C–H bail. Similar information is resident in the 10 _MJ values for all atoms in their valence state (see Table three).

Tabular array 3. Delta values and experimental valence country electronegativity values

Group	Due north	δ	δv	δv– δ	XMJ (eV) a
C(spthree)	two	one	one	0	vii.98
C(sp2)	2	2	3	1	8.79
C(sp)	2	2	4	two	10.39
N(spiii)	2	3	5	ii	11.54
North(sp2)	2	two	5	3	12.87
N(sp)	2	1	5	four	15.68
O(sp3)	2	two	6	4	xv.25
O(sptwo)	2	i	vi	five	17.07
F(sp3)	2	1	7	half dozen	17.63
Si(sp3)	iii	ane	1	0	7.30
Si(sp2)	3	2	3	1	7.90
P(spiii)	3	3	five	2	8.90
S(sp3)	3	2	6	4	10.14
S(sp2)	3	1	6	five	10.88
Cl(sp3)	iii	1	7	6	11.84
>As–	4	three	five	ii	viii.26
–Se–	four	2	6	4	nine.08
–Br	4	1	7	6	nine.90
–I	5	1	7	6	9.02

a

r ⁱⁱ=0.965, s=0.55, n=nineteen. See text for discussion.

In the development of the E-state formalism, we incorporated valence state electronic data because information technology characterizes the organic molecule finer. For this reason, nosotros adopted the Mulliken–Jaffeé valence state electronegativity values as a reference for atomic properties that are of import to electron density. The first step in this development is the finding of a relationship between Ten _MJ and molecular structure information. The linkage tin be understood from the point of view of the source of electronegativity in a molecule. This effect arises from the constructive nuclear accuse on the atom, that is, the attraction of electrons arising from unshielded protons in the nucleus of the atom. ^5,17

As a reference signal, nosotros can consider that a carbon atom in an sp³ valence state has iv valence electrons in iv sigma orbitals. Each valence electron in its sigma orbital, equally part of the sigma bail, finer shields ane nuclear proton. The effective nuclear accuse for this sp³ carbon is taken to be zero and the corresponding VSE is likewise taken to be cipher.

For an sp² carbon cantlet, ane valence electron is in a pi orbital and three are in sigma orbitals. In this instance, the pi electron, whose electron density is primarily outside of the sigma bonding orbital, does not effectively screen the cadre charge. The effective nuclear charge may exist taken as one. The resulting electronegativity of the sp² carbon is college than for the sp³ carbon. Following the aforementioned line of argument, the effective nuclear charge for an acetylenic carbon (sp) is much college than that of the sp² carbon, based on two unshielded protons. More than generally, for carbon valence state electronegativity, the following ranking is observed in properties and described by valence state electronegativity: C–H>CH_two>–CH₃.

This approach to valence state electronegativity can be generalized. The ineffective shielding arises from the fact that pi and lone pair electron density has low or null probability along the line of the bond axis. As a result, pi and lone pair electrons do not screen nuclear protons every bit finer as electrons in sigma orbitals that are directed along the bond axis. ^5,17

The count of the pi and solitary pair electrons on a bonded atom can exist justified as a model of the electronegativity of its bound atom on both experimental and theoretical grounds. The piece of work of Slater has shown that the pi and lone pair electrons, beingness further from the core than the sigma electrons, result in less shielding hence a greater influence of the cadre on the sigma bonding electrons. ²³ This is the essence of electronegativity.

The count of pi and lone pair electrons may be readily related to the effective nuclear charge and, as a issue, to the valence state electronegativity:

$X_{\text{MJ}}\to {\mathrm{\delta }}^{\text{5}}-\mathrm{\delta }=\mathrm{\sigma }+\mathrm{\pi }+n-h-(\mathrm{\sigma }-h)=\mathrm{\pi }+\mathrm{due\; north}$

This expression, for second-row elements, contains the count of the extrajacent electrons on a sigma-bonded atom, that is, the count of pi (π) and lone pair (n) electrons. For elements beyond fluorine, the additional screening of the additional cadre electrons must be taken into account. To include valence states for elements across fluorine, the primary quantum number of the valence electrons (N) is included, as follows:

[one] ${\mathrm{10}}_{\text{MJ}}=\mathrm{seven.44}({\mathrm{\delta }}^{\text{v}}-\mathrm{\delta })/{\mathrm{Northward}}^2+\mathrm{vi.57}{r}^2=0.965,\mathrm{due\; south}=0.55,n=\mathrm{xix}$

This expression was used in a model of VSE for nineteen valence states, leading to a high correlation with X _MJ with a standard error of regression that approaches the known experimental errors, primarily in the determination of electron affinity values. ^v,17 Tabular array three shows values for VSE for 19 atom valence states with the corresponding values for the delta values.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B008045044X002650

wedgwoodowbet1957.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electronegativity

Share :